Literature Review

Revisiting the Past: Jewellery Development throughout the 20^th Century with Emphasis on the Works of Cartier, Lalique, Tiffany & Co., and Van Cleef & Arpels.

How has the overall look of jewellery at any one time changed and developed throughout the decades? How have particular designers, past and present, affected the work of other designers? How have the continuous technological advancements changed the way jewellers work and what they are capable of achieving? What are some other issues that may affect the design of a jewel?

As with every other product on the market the design of a jewel changes with the fashion of the decade. In their book, David Bennett and Daniella Mascetti (2003) review the ways in which this design has changed throughout each decade, highlighting particular events such as world wars, depressions and recessions as well as changing fashions which would have had an impact on the overall look. For example, while the sautoir[1] necklace became popular in the 1920s, so much so that it remains to this day an icon of the so-called ‘roaring twenties’, necklaces in the 1930s became shorter and more rounded, with the central motifs now being spread along the front of the necklace instead of one pendant focusing all of the weight at the centre of the front, the motifs mostly used in this decade were those representing ribbons, bows, straps and buckles. Van Cleef & Arpels became known for their hexagonal link bracelets which were widely copied at the time as well as the ‘invisible’ setting which is still a staple technique among gem setters to this very day.

This can be clearly seen among the designers mentioned in Rochefoucauld’s book (2013) where the invisible setting is used by each jeweller covered in her book at least a handful of times among other settings. The effect this setting has is further increased by the use of CAD programs which allow the designers to calculate precisely the size of each stone before moving on to the production phase rather than having to calculate by trial and error as would have needed to be done in the past.

In her online article, Suzanne Wade (2004) agrees wholeheartedly going further to exemplify the ease with which jewellers can now solder or weld their pieces with the use of laser welding. With this technique, which is not all that different from traditional welding, jewellers can actually weld after having set a gem in place. Previously this would not have been possible because soldering with a torch would damage the gem. Additionally, pieces have become more detailed thanks to the use of CAM capabilities such as laser cutting. (Wade, 2004)

Although the majority of designers tend to create pieces in the prevalent styles there are always those that will produce a style that is all their own, as was JAR in the 1980s. His pieces are reminiscent of Lalique’s work, however JAR’s works contain more gemstones while Lalique’s mostly centres on enamelling techniques, especially plique-a-jour which is almost completely lost nowadays, except for the designs by Luz Camino. In contrast to Lalique’s original creations, Camino’s pieces are not as abstract in theme but are inspired by the faraway world of space and the underwater realm. (Rochefoucauld, 2013)

Jewellery has also had to face cultural challenges throughout the years. The Great Depression and the economic recession which hit in the 1970s were just two of these challenges. Interestingly enough, sales during these periods hardly faltered as people’s trust in the value of paper money decreased and they instead invested in the precious gems which were set within the jewels which gave an added sense of portability to the value as well (Bennett & Mascetti, 2003). This fact maintained itself even during the recent recession in 2008 where jewellery once again was being bought by the same people who were putting off buying property or cars (Childers, 2011).

The onslaught of war brought with it the creation of new materials, and since the traditional materials were being rationed jewellers automatically turned to whatever it was that they could find. As such the new style contained smaller amounts of gems and more metal was seen within the design. There were other instances where gems were set aside, designers instead preferring to create the aesthetic of the piece out of the metal itself, which in this time was usually gold with a more reddish tinge, due to the increased percentage of copper mixed with the gold itself resulting from the lack of the noble metal at this time (Bennett & Mascetti, 2003). Additionally platinum and soon after aluminium were being used.

The use of non-traditional materials within jewellery has been a constant in the jewellery design world consistently in recent history. Patrice Fabre uses concreate in his designs to create a new dimension as well as rough, unpolished diamonds which make his jewellery also attractive to men (Rochefoucauld, 2013).

This development in design is not only thanks to the tireless workings of the designers, or the advancement in technology but also the use of the internet. Rochefoucauld (2013) writes that in addition to the designers’ websites allowing potential customers a window into their collections, blogs and jewellery magazine websites are producing informative material for the public in general to learn about the different styles, gems, techniques and other information related to jewellery and this, in turn created a new class of collector and dilettante.

References

Bennett, D. & Mascetti, D., 2003. Understanding Jewellery. 3rd ed. Suffolk: Antique Collectors' Club Ltd..

Childers, C., 2011. Jewelry International: Volume III. Annual ed. New York: Tourbillon International.

Rochefoucauld, J. W.-D. L., 2013. 21st Century Jewellery Designers: An Inspired Style. Suffolk: Antique Collectors' Club Ltd..

Wade, S., 2004. Creative Freedom - Technology has opened doors for jewelry designers.. [Online]
Available at: http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nenam/creative-freedom.htm
[Accessed 27 April 2015].

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[1] A very long chain or beaded necklace often terminating in a tassel, or pendant which adds weight providing the pendulum effect it was most known for during the 1920s. 

21st Century Jewellery Designers: An Inspired Style by Juliet Weir-De La Rochefoucauld

21st Century Jewellery Designers: An Inspired Style by Juliet Weir-De La Rochefoucauld, published by Antique Collectors' Club Ltd..

In her book, Weir-De La Rochefoucauld discusses the work of various designers from all over the world such as Stephen Webster from the UK, Luz Camino from Spain, Bhagat from India and Edmond Chin from China, to name a few.

She starts her book with a brief introduction on how modern technology has changed jewellery along with the new creative innovations that designers around the world are including in their works. 

Weir-De La Rochefoucauld follows up with a short chapter on JAR who is the foremost predecessor to 21st century jewellery design. Considering he also worked with some of the designers mentioned in the book later on, this chapter is much merited. 

The 20 chapters that follow are dedicated to a designer each: Kaoru Kay Akihara founder of Gimel from Japan, Walid Akkad from Lebanon, based in France, Lorenz Baumer from France, Bhagat from India, Sevan Bicakci from Turkey, Luz Camino from Spain, Wallace Chan from China, Edmond Chin founder of Etcetera from China, Lydia Courteille from France, Michele Della Valle from Italy, Patrice Fabre from France, James De Givenchy founder of Taffin from the United States, Vicente Garcia from Spain, Hemmerle from Germany, Anna Hu based in the United States, Michelle Ong from China, Susanne Syz from Switzerland, Nicholas Varney from the United States, Stephen Webster from the UK, & Dickson Yewn founder of Yewn Heritage from China. 

In the final two pages Weir-De La Rochefoucauld writes about how the internet has changed the face of jewellery marketing as well as creating a class of well-learned collectors through the creation of specialised jewellery blogs. 

References

Rochefoucauld, J. W.-D. L., 2013. 21st Century Jewellery Designers: An Inspired Style. Suffolk: Antique Collectors' Club Ltd..

Ashley Heather reclaims precious metal from circuit boards to create jewellery in Dezeen magazine.

Ashley Heather reclaims precious metal from circuit boards to create jewellery, published in Dezeen magazine.

http://www.dezeen.com/2015/03/11/ashley-heather-reclaimed-circuit-board-metal-jewellery-design-indaba-2015/

In this article, Dezeen features Ashley Heather’s jewellery designs which she presented at the Design Indaba 2015 Expo. The official website describes the expo as “South Africa’s premier showcase of high-end design, exhibiting the homegrown wares of all the creative sectors under one roof.”

By working closely with a metal refinery “which she claims is the only facility of its kind in Africa”, Heather is able to use the silver which is recycled from discarded circuit boards and other electronics which use quite a good amount of silver since it is a good conductor for electricity, although not mentioned in this article, gold is another precious metal frequently found in electronics.

According to the designer, the silver that is extracted from this refining method is actually purer than 999 silver traditionally used in jewellery, because the method used reduces the amount of impurities to practically nothing. One can tell this even by looking at the photos of the jewellery.

This silver can also be used as sterling silver by adding a percentage of copper to it which is also recycled from the electronics.

It’s interesting that in a world where everyone is trying to steer away from using traditional materials because they are not as ‘environmentally friendly’ as the more contemporary materials being used in creations today, designers are finding new ways of using the same traditional and precious materials and still using the ‘green’ hook that seems to be a necessity for anyone selling anything in the current climate.

References

Dezeen Magazine, 2015. Ashley Heather reclaims precious metal from circuit boards to create jewellery. [Online]
Available at: http://www.dezeen.com/2015/03/11/ashley-heather-reclaimed-circuit-board-metal-jewellery-design-indaba-2015/
[Accessed 02 May 2015].

Creative Freedom - Technology has opened doors for jewelry designers.

Creative Freedom - Technology has opened doors for jewelry designers by Suzanne Wade, published on Ganoksin.

http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nenam/creative-freedom.htm

In this article, Wade writes about the impressive designs that are being produced today thanks to the huge development in technology. With the developments achieved in CAD/CAM capabilities and the invention of laser welding, jewellers are not only creating designs they would have previously only dreamed of, but they are also creating designs they previously created but with a higher level of detail. 

It is also a huge timesaver as Paul Klecka, a designer based in Chicago whom she interviewed, points out. Designs that might have been thought up before but might have been shelved due to the large amount of time that would have been needed to be invested in them are now being made in a fraction of the time as well as with more minute details.

It is not only what these tools themselves are able to achieve, but, as a lot of jewellers are learning, they can be used in conjunction with other tools and older techniques in order to produce truly unique pieces.

"As even those skilled in the new technologies point out, technology is just a tool; it can't replace a talented designer with vision. However, it can - and is - expanding the limits of what's possible for that talent to create" (Wade, 2004)

References

Wade, S., 2004. Creative Freedom - Technology has opened doors for jewelry designers. Ganoksin [Online]
Available at: http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nenam/creative-freedom.htm
[Accessed 27 April 2015].

Understanding Jewellery by David Bennett and Daniella Mascetti.

Understanding Jewellery by David Bennett and Daniella Mascetti, published by Antique Collectors' Club Ltd..

To put things simply this book’s title is nothing if not apt as it explains everything to do with jewellery. The book starts off with a chapter on gemstones describing the difference between precious and semi-precious gemstones used in the various designs that are then discussed in the book. It is immediately followed by four Appendices also dedicated to gems and stones and their qualities such as light refraction and reflection, their grading on the Mohs scale, their treatment and enhancement and a separate appendix discussing pastes and composite stones.

The following chapters are then split up into increments of age with the first one encompassing from the late 18^th century to 1820. Every chapter following covers 20 years each from 1820 onwards. For the purposes of the literature review I have read Chapter 7: From 1920 to 1940, Chapter 8: The 1940s and the Post-War Years, & Chapter 9: From 1960 to 1980.

Much like the other chapters which I will not mention in this blog, this section of the book discusses the major styles that influenced design throughout the eras. The authors also mention pieces that either stopped being designed or were invented during those times such as the ending of parures or the amalgamation of female wristwatches into the modern-day suite. The popularity of particular metals and gemstones during the years covered are mentioned in reference to the styles in rising fashions. The fashion of the jewellery itself is also changed by the discovery of new materials continuously happening throughout the years as well as the cultures of the buyers themselves such as the Indian Maharanis and Middle Eastern Sheiks.

Helpful to my research is how the authors distinguish between the work of one designer or house and another. This is helped with the use of illustrations in plentiful quantity in each chapter and cross-referencing of said illustrations within the text itself. In line with this, they also mention designers that became popular during a particular time such as David Webb in the 1970s as well as landmark designs created by particular houses which then might have been copied or adapted by others.

References

Bennett, D. & Mascetti, D., 2003. Understanding Jewellery. 3rd ed. Suffolk: Antique Collectors' Club Ltd..

Jewelry That Breaks With Tradition in The New York Times

Jewelry That Breaks with Tradition by Kathleen Beckett, published in The New York Times

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/18/style/international/jewelry-that-breaks-with-tradition.html?_r=0

By interviewing Eddie Borgo, a New-York based jewellery designer; Marie Lassange, head buyer of fine jewellery and watches at Le Bon Marche in Paris; Joel Towers, Executive Dean of Parsons: The New School of Design, and Stephen Webster, London jewellery designer, Beckett tries to find a reason for the new forms and materials found in the jewellery market today.

With the help of these four, Beckett uncovers some key details in jewellery design today. It is not just the creative atmosphere among the designers themselves that has produced a surge in this contemporary style but also the creativity with which customers are choosing to wear their jewellery. Stephen Webster discusses one important change with Beckett: the fact that “[w]omen are now buying jewelry for themselves,” and as he puts it women take risks, men don’t. Personally I agree, designers would have had to make jewellery both attractive to the women wearing it and the men buying it twenty or thirty years ago, whereas now they can create specifically for the women themselves without the fear of not selling their designs.

Another important aspect to selling these designs is that they are still made in expensive materials – perhaps not the gold and diamonds that most people are used to but materials are considered luxurious today.

References

Beckett, K., 2015. Jewelry That Breaks With Tradition. The New York Times [Online] 17 March
Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/18/style/international/jewelry-that-breaks-with-tradition.html?_r=0
[Accessed 13 April 2015].

Jewelry Inspired by Empires in The New York Times.

Jewelry Inspired by Empires by Susanne Fowler, Published in The New York Times

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/18/style/international/jewelry-inspired-by-empires.html 

This article was strictly focused on one designer: Aida Bergsen, who runs a jewellery design business outside of a workshop in the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul. Fowler describes Bergsen’s designs in detail and differentiates between her works and those of the other jewellers in the bazaar which are more ‘inspired’ by the jewellery created by the larger, more well-known design houses.

Fowler also covers some of Bergsen’s inspirational sources such as the Ottoman Empire, which immediately reminds one of when the world’s jewellery designers were inspired by their own empires’ discoveries such as the Tomb of Tutankhamun and the Mayan civilizations.

Lastly Bergsen herself describes her process of hand carving the designs in wax before casting them in metal.

Honestly, the article was extremely interesting however I don't feel that it  contains any particular information that would be useful to my essay. 

References

Fowler, S., 2015. Jewelry Inspired by Empires. The New York Times [Online] 17 March
Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/18/style/international/jewelry-inspired-by-empires.html
[Accessed 13 April 2015].

From An American In Paris, Custom-made Jewelry in The New York Times

From An American In Paris, Custom-made Jewelry by Bernadine Morris, Published in the New York Times.

http://www.nytimes.com/1985/10/05/style/from-an-american-in-paris-custom-made-jewelry.html

JAR, which stands for Joel Arthur Rosenthal, is a name which continually pops up when one is reading about jewellery design in the late 20 century and so I felt compelled to pull up a few articles on him, which wasn’t easy as he seems to be very reclusive.

This article, in fact, is 30 years old, dating back to when JAR was still gaining a certain kind of momentum across the globe. Rosenthal seems to be considered one of the greatest jewellers that was active in the 80s. His pieces are inspired heavily by historicism and the modern styles such as Art Nouveau and Art Deco. In this article he explains that his designs are based on the stones and the gems that he uses and not the other way around. This might be the reason why all his pieces, save one, are one of a kind.

Morris explains that JAR does not believe that earrings should match each other and are just as beautiful, if not more, when they are asymmetrical. The jeweller also tells Morris that, when designing, earrings have to be seen on a woman’s face otherwise they “can be a disaster” as JAR says.

This article helped me get a glimpse into who JAR is and why he is considered so important. Reading up on Rosenthal, I get the distinct impression that he was as important to 80s and 90s jewellery as Lalique was in the 1900s and 1910s. Although I have sourced enough books for this particular essay, I feel that it would not be wasted to get a book dedicated to this designer.

References

Morris, B., 1985. From an American in Paris, Custom-Made Jewelry. The New York Times [Online] 5 October
Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/1985/10/05/style/from-an-american-in-paris-custom-made-jewelry.html
[Accessed 13 April 2015].

20th Century Jewelry: The Complete Sourcebook by John Peacock

20^th Century Jewelry: The Complete Sourcebook by John Peacock, published by Thames & Hudson.

There isn’t a lot to say about this book as the majority of the content is illustrations. That being said, however, it was helpful to me as each illustration (which are hand-drawn and not simple photos) has a description allocated to it which lists the materials of the piece. Furthermore, each page shows particular pieces during a particular time (Necklaces 1910-1919) which provides recognition of the predominant style at the listed time. This is also true of the descriptions which provide knowledge of materials and therefore one can easily see what the most dominant materials in a particular era were.

References

Peacock, J., 2002. 20th Century Jewelry: The Complete Sourcebook. London: Thames & Hudson.

Jewelry International: Volume III by Caroline Childers.

Jewelry International: Volume III by Caroline Childers, published by Tourbillon International. 

When I first saw this book I was a bit sceptical as to how useful it would actually be to my research. However when I started reading I did find it very useful indeed. The book is split into three sections. In the first section, Childers discusses a huge inspiration point for jewellers around the world and throughout history... Animals. She looks at how the ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Etruscans, Mayans and Aztecs among others, used animal motifs in their jewellery and why they used to use particular animals over others. She moves through history charting particular animals and countries and discussing what differentiates their jewellery from that of all the others. Six chapters allow a more detailed look at specific species including those mythical. (Reptiles, Mammals, Birds, Insects, Creatures of the Sea, Fantastical Animals.)

The second section of the book deals with gemstones. Each of the 24 short chapters in this section deal with a gemstone that is either precious or semi-precious, mineral or organic and discusses their properties, uses, origins and, in certain cases, which one of the many designers was responsible for popularising them. Wherever possible the author also discusses ancient legends which might have promoted the use of these stones in ancient civilizations or stories of popular version of stones such as those of the Hope, Koh-I-Noor and The Great Star of Africa diamonds. (Agate, Amber, Amethyst, Aquamarine, Chrysoberyl, Citrine, Coral, Diamond, Emerald, Garnet, Jade, Lapis Lazuli, Moonstone, Opal, Pearl, Peridot, Quartz, Ruby, Sapphire, Spinel, Tanzanite, Topaz, Tourmaline, Turquoise.)

The final section consists of 18 chapters which covers 18 different ‘Houses of Prestige’. Each chapter discusses the trademark of the company it covers and how this changed or remained throughout the history of the house and, in cases where the founder has retired or died, what the current designers are looking to achieve now and how they are trying to keep their legacy alive. This, along with certain key pieces and customers that are eternally linked to the houses. (Andreoli, Arunashi, ASSAEL, AUTORE, Bayco, Bulgari, Cartier, Chopard, Cora, Daniella Kronfle, David Morris, DAVID WEBB, de GRISOGONO, Jacob & Co., Olivia, Robert Wan, Yossi Harari, ZORAB.)

References

Childers, C., 2011. Jewelry International: Volume III. Annual ed. New York : Tourbillon International .

Art Nouveau Jewelry by Vivienne Becker.

Art Nouveau Jewelry by Vivienne Becker, published by Thames & Hudson.

The reason I chose to read this book was because, apart from being my personal favourite era, Art Nouveau serves as a starting point to my research. It was during this era that a lot of advances were made in the world of jewellery.

In her book Vivienne Becker charts the development of jewellery design from right before to right after the Art Nouveau style, making a connection with creators who inspired the jewellers in the dawn of the 20^th century and how these, in turn, inspired those who came after or how they themselves adapted their designs to fit the new style of Art Deco.

Each chapter is split into a country where the style was very dominant and took on an independence to what was being done in other countries, namely: France, Germany & Austria, Great Britain and the United States. The final chapter collects all the minimal information on Art Nouveau jewellery in other countries, information that on its own would not merit a chapter but collected together shows the diversity of the style as it travelled across the globe, while identifying key motifs and inspirational points to Art Nouveau (such as insects, reptiles, and Japonisme) in her introduction.

Becker not only comments on the style in general but also on what particular designers such as Lalique, Fouquet, Vever, and Tiffany were doing in particular. She identifies how one designer’s pieces varied from those of another even within the same country. This was particularly interesting to my research as in this manner she mentions three of the four particular designers I am currently researching (Lalique, Tiffany, and Cartier)

Throughout the course of the book, Becker also identifies world events that would have affected design, such as the opening of Japan’s art borders to the rest of the world and America, having played an instrumental role, would be the country to take the most advantage of this situation.

Helping the reader to get a clearer picture of the style are photos of the jewellery itself, some in colour, the majority in grey-scale, although this does not affect the detail which one can see in the photos of the pieces.

All in all this book is a great starting point to my research even though it does not provide all of the historical development I need for my essay. 

References

Becker, V., 1998. Art Nouveau Jewelry. 1st ed. London: Thames & Hudson.

Books and Articles: Post 2

Although I found a virtual goldmine of articles with my last link I kept on looking for other sources, particularly any magazines dedicated to jewellery design, or with sections dedicated to the same topic.

I came across Jewels du Jour (http://www.jewelsdujour.com/) which is, according to the editor 'a website dedicated to important historical and contemporary jewelry' which is my essay's overall topic. The site has various articles, both relevant and not to my essay, however all interesting.

While searching the site I found a section of the webpage entitled (aptly so) 'Library' and clicked hoping that it would lead me to some note-worthy books on the subject (http://www.jewelsdujour.com/library). I must say that a visit to this library was ten times more worthwhile than a visit to the school library and while I can't check out any of the books listed here, it has certainly given me a brilliant starting point towards which books I should and shouldn't buy. Knowing that the books listed here are not just pictures will help me in my research.

Books and Articles

http://www.ganoksin.com/index.htm

I was recommended this website by a Maltese jeweller - Andrew Vella Montague while I was conducting an interview with him for another unit. At the time I only had a quick look around but during my research into jewellery design this site keeps popping up in a number of online searches and so I felt compelled to take a proper look at the site. 

The site is a collection of information, ranging from book reviews to links to articles as well as a forum for creators where they can share techniques and tips with everyone. 

I haven't had enough time to read any of the articles or reviews on the website however I am definitely bookmarking this website for future referencing. 

In the meantime I've had a look around the library to check what books and magazines they have available and, I have to say that they are woefully under-stocked on jewellery books and magazines that have nothing to do with the technical side of the industry. Indeed I only found four books which can be considered critical or historical. 

I am honestly not that surprised considering I constantly visit the library and browse their shelves just to see what they have and don't have - I feel this saves time in the long run. I considered placing the orders for the books with them however I thought that it would be more beneficial to me and my research methods if I were to buy the books myself.